The Celtic Languages

Celtic languages were at one time spoken across much of Europe, as the Celtic tribes controlled large areas of Western and Central Europe, extending even into Asia Minor. On the European mainland, these languages were eventually replaced by Latin as the Celtic tribes were subdued by the Romans and inducted into Roman civilisation. However, the Celtic languages survived in Ireland, which avoided Roman occupation, and in Britain, where British remained the principal spoken language until c. 600 AD, when the last British kingdoms in what is now England fell to the English.

The Celtic languages have traditionally been divided into two branches: Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic. The Continental Celtic languages include Gaulish (spoken throughout Gaul in the widest sense of the word), Lepontic (in northern Italy), Celtiberian (in the Iberian peninsula) and Galatian (in Asia Minor), all of which are known only from inscriptions and proper names; the Insular languages include the Celtic languages of the British Isles and Brittany (despite being spoken on the continent, Breton is an Insular Celtic language, as it was carried there by emigrants from Britain).

The Insular languages are themselves divided into two groups: Goidelic (comprising Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx); and Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish and Breton). Of these, all but Manx and Cornish remain living languages. These languages are sometimes termed Q-Celtic and P-Celtic respectively, because of the divergent treatment of Indo-European *k^w. In the Goidelic languages, this remained, later becoming c; in the Brythonic languages, it became p. Compare Old Irish macc 'son' (< IE *mak^wk^wos) with Old Welsh map, Old Cornish and Old Breton mab (< *mak^wos).

However, Gaulish and Lepontic are also P-Celtic languages, while Celtiberian is Q-Celtic, so it's not clear to what extent the Continental/Insular division is based on real linguistic differences, rather than practical considerations (the Continental Celtic languages are all long dead and leave only scanty remains, whereas the Insular languages are for the most part still living and have long literary traditions). From what is known of Gaulish, it seems at least possible that British (the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton) was more closely related to Gaulish than it was to Irish: it has been proposed that British derives directly from Gaulish, while Irish is more closely related to Celtiberian. This theory assumes two waves of Celtic invasions of the British Isles, by peoples speaking Q-Celtic and P-Celtic languages respectively. The alternative (Insular/Continental) theory assumes only one Celtic invasion of the British isles, and that the Gaulish change of *k^w to p spread to British without affecting Goidelic, which had already become separated. A definitive answer to the problem will have to await a much better understanding of the Celtiberian inscriptions.

Continental Celtic

Goidelic

Brythonic

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Last modified: 10/02/06